Tag: free speech

Can the Government Restrict Incitement Content on Social Media?

By Samuel Naramore

In November 2023, a District Court Judge in Colorado held that former President Trump had used his social media between 2020 and 2023 to incite lawless action.[1] With the 2024 election cycle looming, this judge’s ruling is incredibly timely. As social media’s attention turns towards the political discourse, the passion around contentious topics and groups will likely increase. It is critically important to understand what incitement to lawless action on social media is, to prevent future acts of political lawlessness like those on January 6, 2021.

Virginia’s Online Age Verification Law: Can it Withstand Constitutional Challenges?

By JOLT

On October 10, 2023

In Blog Posts

By Jay Hale

On June 15, 2022, Louisiana broke new ground by enacting a law that creates civil liability for commercial entities whose websites contain more than 33.3% of material deemed harmful to minors.[1] This liability comes into play if minors gain access to such content, and the entity fails to implement reasonable age verification methods on its website.[2] These methods can range from digital ID cards to government-issued identification or any commercially viable approach that relies on public or private transactional data to confirm a user’s age.[3]

After Louisiana’s bold move in introducing this age verification law, several other states quickly passed similar legislation.[4] Virginia was among these states, enacting its own age verification law on May 12, 2023.[5] In this article, I will delve into recent challenges faced by similar laws in Utah and Texas, shedding light on potential challenges that Virginia’s age verification law might encounter.

Utah:

Utah made headlines with the passage of SB 287, known as the “Online Pornography Viewing Age Requirements” law. This legislation aimed to compel adult content websites to implement age verification systems, ensuring that individuals had reached the legal age before accessing explicit material.[6] However, this law quickly found itself in the crosshairs of legal challenges by the adult entertainment industry.[7]

In response to SB 287, Pornhub took the drastic step of blocking Utah-based internet connection access to all of its content.[8] The porn site xHampster attempted to comply with the new law by using a service called Yoti, a system that estimates a user’s age through selfies without storing personal data.[9] Interestingly, when Pornhub closed its doors to Utah users, there was a notable surge in VPN downloads across the state.[10] This raises legitimate concerns that websites like Pornhub might still face liability if minors in Utah use VPNs to gain access to sensitive material.[11]

One of the most significant challenges to Utah’s new age verification law was presented in the case of Free Speech Coalition v. Anderson. In this case, the plaintiffs contended that SB 287 was unconstitutional.[12] They sought to enjoin the Commissioner of Utah’s Department of Public Safety from permitting the download of its data files for use in the age verification process.[13] Their argument revolved around the law’s alleged impermissible vagueness, which they believed violated the due process clause of the Constitution.[14] Additionally, they argued that SB 287 placed a substantial burden on interstate commerce by restricting the ability of online content providers to reach Utah residents.[15] Furthermore, the law was criticized for imposing a content-based restriction on protected speech without effectively achieving the State’s goal of protecting minors from harmful material that is readily available elsewhere.[16]

The defendants in this case sought to have it dismissed, arguing that it lacked jurisdiction under the 11th Amendment, which typically prevents citizens from suing their own state in Federal Court.[17] This rule also extends to lawsuits against state officials acting in their official capacity.[18] However, there is an exception known as Ex parte Young which allows plaintiffs to sue state officials if the state official has a duty to enforce the statute in question.[19] In this case, the plaintiffs couldn’t use the Ex parte Young exception against the Attorney General because the law in question allowed private individuals, not state actors, to enforce it.[20] The Attorney General’s general duty to enforce the law didn’t qualify for the exception.[21] The same went for Commissioner Anderson, who oversaw a program related to driver’s licenses but lacked the online infrastructure needed for age verification.[22] Due to this, the Court found that it lacked jurisdiction over the matter.[23]

While the case was ultimately dismissed, it sheds light on the challenges potential plaintiffs in Virginia might face when attempting to sue the state over its age verification law. Much like Utah, Virginia empowers private individuals to sue commercial entities for violating the law.[24] Consequently, it’s highly likely that a Virginia plaintiff would be unsuccessful in suing state officials on the grounds of the law’s unconstitutionality.

However, there remains a glimmer of hope for the adult entertainment industry in their battle against these laws. InFree Speech Coalition v. Anderson, the Judge’s opinion included a statement that offered some solace: “It may be of little succor to Plaintiffs, but any commercial entity sued under SB 287 may pursue state and federal constitutional arguments in his or her defense. They just cannot receive a pre-enforcement injunction…”[25]

The path forward suggests that until a commercial entity faces legal action under the age verification laws of each state, Utah and Virginia will have to wait to determine whether their respective age verification laws are indeed constitutional. A recent case in Texas, however, provides a hint that these age verification laws will continue to face significant constitutional challenges.

Texas:

Texas’ law sets itself apart from Utah and Virginia’s age verification laws in a significant way. While these states empower private individuals to bring claims against entities failing to comply with age verification requirements, Texas takes it a step further. It grants its Attorney General the authority to take legal action against online entities knowingly flouting the state’s age verification law.[26]

A pivotal case that exemplifies the clash over Texas’s age verification law is Free Speech Coalition Inc. v. Colmenero. This legal battle played out in the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas, Austin Division. Here, the Plaintiffs sought a preliminary injunction, a maneuver aimed at halting the enforcement of the age verification bill.[27]

What made this case particularly noteworthy was the Court’s determination of its jurisdiction. It determined that the Ex parte Young exception was present.[28] In this instance, the Attorney General’s involvement with the enforcement of the age verification law provided the necessary connection for the Court to assert jurisdiction.[29]

Furthermore, the Court determined that Texas’s age verification law violates the first amendment of the Constitution. Although the Judge acknowledged the consensus that pornography is inappropriate for children, Texas fell short in demonstrating that its law was narrowly tailored to the purpose of safeguarding minors.[30] The law also appears to unfairly target websites such as Pornhub while overlooking websites like Reddit, where pornography is prevalent but doesn’t make up over a third of its total content.[31]

As the law regulates speech, encompassing content deserving of First Amendment protection, it must survive strict scrutiny, meeting three critical criteria: (1) serve a compelling government interest, (2) be narrowly tailored to achieve that interest, and (3) be the least restrictive means of advancing it.[32] While a compelling state interest does exist in this context, the law falters in the realm of narrow tailoring.[33] It only applies to a subset of pornographic websites that are subject to the personal jurisdiction of Texas, failing to encompass many foreign websites beyond its reach.[34] Consequently, the law lacks a valid enforcement mechanism, permitting minors to access potentially explicit content from foreign sites with no ties to the United States.[35] Additionally, the law is overly broad and restrictive. It deters adult’s access to legal, sexually explicit material, well beyond the scope of protecting minors.[36]

The Court’s ruling highlighted how the law would deter many adults from engaging with the restricted content out of reluctance to disclose their identification information, fearing that it might be collected and stored.[37] The requirement for adults to actively identify themselves before accessing such material creates a chilling effect on their ability to access protected speech.[38]

Conclusion:

In summary, Utah and Texas serve as intriguing precursors for the constitutionality of Virginia’s age verification law. While Utah’s legal battle highlighted the challenges for plaintiffs in states where only private individuals can sue, Virginia seems poised for a similar scenario. In contrast, Texas, with its unique approach granting its Attorney General enforcement powers, sparked a constitutional clash that questioned the law’s narrow tailoring and potential chilling effect on adult access to explicit content.

As these age verification laws evolve, they foreshadow a future filled with legal battles and constitutional scrutiny, with the adult entertainment industry at the forefront of the fight to protect its interests and free expression rights.

^[1] H.R. 142, 2022 Reg. Sess. (Va. 2023), http://www.legis.la.gov/legis/ViewDocument.aspx?d=1249878.

^[2] Id.

^[3] Id.

^[4] Sara Cline & Kevin McGill, Adult entertainment group sues Louisiana over age-verification law for porn, AP News (June 22, 2023, 5:31 PM), https://apnews.com/article/porn-lawsuit-age-verification-louisiana-65c5ff6c6e15c8c95f73e81e3dc0a65e.

^[5] H.R. 142, 2022 Reg. Sess. (Va. 2023).

^[6] Ben Winslow, Pornhub blocks Utah in protest of new age-verification law, Fox 13 News Utah (May 1, 2023, 2:30 PM), https://www.fox13now.com/news/local-news/pornhub-blocks-utah-in-protest-of-new-age-verification-law

^[7] Christopher Brown, Adult-Industry Group Challenges Utah Online Age Verification Law, Bloomberg Law (May 5, 2023, 2:03 PM), https://news.bloomberglaw.com/us-law-week/utah-age-minimum-website-law-challenged-by-adult-industry-group.

^[8] Skye Witley & Andrea Vittorio, Porn Site Pushback on Utah Law Foreshadows More Age-Check Fights, Bloomberg Law (May 12, 2023, 5:10 AM), https://news.bloomberglaw.com/privacy-and-data-security/porn-site-pushback-on-utah-law-foreshadows-more-age-check-fights.

^[9]Id.

^[10] Christiano Lima & David DiMolfetta, Utah’s porn crackdown has a VPN problem, The Washington Post (May 5, 2023, 9:05 AM), https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2023/05/05/utahs-porn-crackdown-has-vpn-problem/.

^[11] Id.

^[12] Free Speech Coal., Inc. v. Anderson, No. 2:23-CV-287 TS, 2023 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 134645 (D. Utah Aug. 1, 2023).

^[13] Id.

^[14] Id.

^[15] Id.

^[16] Brown, supra note 7.

^[17] Free Speech Coal., Inc. v. Anderson, No. 2:23-CV-287 TS, 2023 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 134645 (D. Utah Aug. 1, 2023).

^[18] Id.

[19] Id.

[20] Id.

[21] Id.

[22] Id.

[23] Id.

[24] H.R. 142, 2022 Reg. Sess. (Va. 2023).

[25] Free Speech Coal., Inc. v. Anderson, No. 2:23-CV-287 TS, 2023 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 134645 (D. Utah Aug. 1, 2023).

[26] H.B. 1181, 88th Leg., Reg. Sess. (2023), https://capitol.texas.gov/tlodocs/88R/billtext/pdf/HB01181F.pdf#navpanes=0.

[27] Amanda Silberling, Texas cannot yet enforce ID checks on porn sites, TechCrunch (Aug. 31, 2023, 4:23 PM), https://techcrunch.com/2023/08/31/texas-cannot-yet-enforce-id-checks-on-porn-sites/.

[28] Free Speech Coal., Inc. v. Colmenero, No. 1:23-CV-917-DAE, 2023 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 154065 (W.D. Tex. Aug. 31, 2023).

[29] Id.

[30] Andrea Vittorio, Porn Industry Group Wins Pause of Texas Online Age Check Law, Bloomberg Law (Aug. 31, 2023, 5:32 PM), https://news.bloomberglaw.com/privacy-and-data-security/porn-industry-group-stops-texas-from-implementing-age-check-law.

[31] Id.

[32] Free Speech Coal., Inc. v. Colmenero, No. 1:23-CV-917-DAE, 2023 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 154065 (W.D. Tex. Aug. 31, 2023).

[33] Id.

[34] Id.

[35] Id.

[36] Id.

[37] Id.

[38] Id.

Image Source: https://unsplash.com/photos/FGH69mi53Mw

Lessons From The German Saga Of Fake News – Proposing A Shift From The State To Communities

By JOLT

On July 28, 2020

In Blog Posts

by Saiesh Kamath, 3L at the National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata

As the ubiquity of the Internet reigns, social media platforms have turned into essential vehicles in facilitating participation in a democratic culture.[1] However, these platforms are also used for the dissemination of ‘fake news’.[2] Fake news is an umbrella term which is used to denote propaganda, hoaxes, trolling, and often, satire.[3] The growth of ‘fake news’ has been flagged as a global cause of concern. This is due to its demonstrated capability of subverting democratic processes[4] and instigating violence,[5] with minorities and the marginalised being disproportionately affected.[6] Since fake news achieves virality on social media platforms, there have been calls to regulate the dissemination of such content on these platforms. Some nations have passed statutes in order to deal with this crisis.[7] A critical appraisal of such regulatory laws is necessary in order to construct a framework which will effectively curb the menace of fake news. In this regard, a critical look at the German law is necessary considering the large attention it has received from legislators and legislatures of many nations.[8]

In Part I of this paper, I will introduce the German law instituted to regulate fake news. In Part II, an implication on free speech will be explored. Part III will offer an alternative framework to counter fake news.

I. The Network Enforcement Act, 2017, of Germany

The necessity of countering fake news in Germany was sharpened due to the role played by hate speech and fake news in the Presidential elections of the United States of America in 2016. Hence, the Network Enforcement Act, 2017(hereinafter the Act) was passed in order to combat hate speech and fake news online[9] – two concepts that have increasingly become interconnected.[10] The Act was brought about for two reasons. Firstly, it was to ensure the enforcement of existent provisions in the German criminal code.[11] Secondly, it was to place the onus of such enforcement on social networks[12] (hereinafter intermediaries) with two million or more registered users in Germany.[13]

The Act mandates intermediaries to provide for the user to have a complaint mechanism against illegal content online.[14] In cases of “manifestly unlawful” content, intermediaries must take down the content within twenty-four hours.[15] In order to remove or block access to any other type of illegal content, a period of seven days is provided.[16] Failure to adhere to these requirements is considered a civil violation, and carries fines of up to fifty million Euros.[17]

II. Stifling Free Speech

The Act was considered one of the most expansive laws arising from a Western nation to tackle fake news.[18] However, civil rights activists, media organisations, and other groups condemned the law due to its implications on free speech.[19] Of the many legitimate arguments, one of the most compelling was that the law stifled free speech of people.[20]

There is a chilling effect on freedom of speech in two main ways. Firstly, it arises due to the burden imposed on intermediaries to make a call on what content qualifies as legal or illegal. Secondly, it is manifested through the phenomenon of over-removal.

The main criticism of the Act arises from the obligation imposed on intermediaries to monitor and take down illegal content online. The problem with this feature is that it privatizes enforcement of the law.[21] This happens because intermediaries are obliged to make a call on the legality of content and take down illegal content. However, intermediaries do not possess the technical legal knowledge to take a call on what content qualifies as legal or illegal. Hence, to assume such a level of understanding of the law onto an intermediary so as to equate its function akin to that of the Judiciary[22] is absurd.

While this unfair obligation in and of itself does not stifle speech, it creates, a phenomenon called ‘over-removal’.[23] This phenomenon entails broad and excessive censorship. In this case, over-removal happens due to financial disincentives in the form of fines created by the Act. In scenarios where intermediaries fail in their obligation to timely remove illegal content, they are penalized with fines. Given that intermediaries do not possess a level of understanding of the law so as to guarantee correct judgement for every instance in a time-sensitive framework, they err on the side of censorship and take down even content which is legal.[24] This is also problematic because censorship tends to disproportionately take away from the voices of minority groups.[25] Considering that minorities were intended to benefit from the Act, this consequence takes away from progress made in that direction.

This violates Article 5 of the Basic Law (the Constitution) of Germany which guarantees freedom of speech, expression, and opinion to the German people.[26] Additionally, over-removal takes away from the principle of freedom of speech that is enshrined in different international human rights and civil rights treaties and conventions.[27] The same reasoning was brought forward in the case against the French law on hate speech,[28] which was inspired by the Act.[29] The Constitutional Court struck down critical provisions of the Act, one basis being that it disproportionately infringed freedom of speech. In so doing, it articulated the importance of the freedom in democratic polity.[30]

A draft to amend the Act was introduced recently,[31] but it does not make any changes to the core tent of the Act being critiqued – privatizing law enforcement.

III. From Excessive State Intervention to Community Collaboration

The issue of fake news is not an easy one to analyse, let alone resolve. However, the approach of compromising one human right for preserving another is a position that is borne from the unique German experience with the collapse of a democratic order under the Nazis.[32] As such, this approach should not be replicated with reckless abandon in other nations, especially without the existence of similar historical lessons and popular mandate.

The social utility that is derived from free speech should not be laid at the sacrificial altar without considering other frameworks. In this regard, I argue that there needs to be a shift from an excessive state interventionist approach demonstrated by Germany to a rights-respecting framework of community collaboration.

Fake news targets users of intermediary platforms in insidious ways. Its core characteristic of being viral is used to expose users to fake news. The exposure of fake news to users is additionally problematic because users are susceptible to still believe it even after corrections are issued.[33] Hence, tackling the root of this issue would be to make users more resilient to fake news.

To do this, there needs to be a strategy to decrease the persuasion value of fake news, and build psychological resistance in users. In this regard, the ‘inoculation’ theory is useful. Arising from psychology, it essentially says that users may be ‘inoculated’ to fake news by exposing them to a ‘weakened version’ of fake news.[34] This would mean that users would be exposed to relatively apparent fake news. This exercise in identifying fake news would build resilience and increase vigilance of users. This would lead to a pathway where fake news tends to be preemptively ‘bunked’.[35]

Research around the inoculation theory and its effects are promising. When contextualised around the climate change narrative, users were made resistant to a specific piece of misinformation, and hence avoided the influence carries by fake news on climate change.[36] This is also promising given that the extent and reasons for climate change remains an issue which falls on partisan lines. Hence, it holds potential to be used for other influential partisan issues which are usually subject to fake news.

This research was also extended to help users spot the common strategies employed in producing fake news.[37] By exposing users to relatively apparent manipulation strategies used by fake news disseminators, users were better able to identify the tell-tale signs of fake news.[38] This study is more potent because the relatively time-consuming exercise of inoculating users against specific pieces of misinformation is, while still holding its own value to tackle specific pieces of pernicious and persistent misinformation, now subsumed in the wider understanding of manipulation tactics surrounding fake news. Hence, it functions like a ‘broad spectrum vaccine’.[39]

This approach of radically decentralising the exercise of countering fake news is better because it takes no part in subverting human and constitutional rights, and its consequent adverse effects on democratic discourse and polity. This is because it refuses to submit to false equivalencies of trade-offs between various rights or groups of rights. This approach also has the benefit of empowering the ultimate stakeholder: the user. While the times brought on by a more digitally connected world may consist of new dangers, a framework which is comfortable with de-emphasising cherished rights and principles should not be adopted when other rights-respecting frameworks exist.

In this framework, the State would still have a role. It would be tasked with devising strategies to facilitate collaboration between communities which are countering fake news. This would increase co-ordination between communities, and enable learning and sharing best practices from each other. This would be relevant in, and respectful of, a world with increasing diversity and culture, and would serve to acknowledge that a one-size-fits-all approach is not the best fit for a problem as complex and persistent as fake news.

[1] See Kate Klonick, The New Governors: The People, Rules, and Processes Governing Online Speech, 131 Harv. Law. Rev. 1600 (2018).

[2] See Alberto Alemanno, How to Counter Fake News? A Taxonomy of Anti-fake News Approaches, 9 Eur. J. Risk Regul. 1 (2018).

[3] See Mark Verstraete, Derek E. Bambauer, and Jane R. Bambauer, Identifying and Countering Fake News, Arizona Legal Studies Discussion Paper No. 17-15 (2017).

[4]See Alexis Mardigan, What Facebook Did to American Democracy, The Atlantic, (October 12 2017), https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2017/10/what-facebook-did/542502/.

[5] See Reuters, Man pleads guilty in Washington pizzeria shooting over fake news, (March 24, 2017, 8:11 PM) https://www.reuters.com/article/us-washingtondc-gunman/man-pleads-guilty-in-washington-pizzeria-shooting-over-fake-news-idUSKBN16V1XC (Last visited on 11 June 2020).

[6] See Kimberly Grambo, Fake News And Racial, Ethnic, And Religious Minorities: A Precarious Quest For Truth, 21(5) U. Pa. J. Const. L. 1319 (2019).

[7] See Fathin Ungku, Factbox: ‘Fake News’ laws around the world, Reuters (April 2, 2019, 3:43 PM), https://in.reuters.com/article/singapore-politics-fakenews/factbox-fake-news-laws-around-the-world-idINKCN1RE0XW.

[8]See Jacob Mchangama and Joelle Fiss, Germany’s Online Crackdowns Inspire The World’s Dictators, Foreign Policy (November 6, 2019, 10:47 AM), https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/06/germany-online-crackdowns-inspired-the-worlds-dictators-russia-venezuela-india/; See also Justitia, The Digital Berlin Wall: How Germany (Accidentally) Created a Prototype for Global Online Censorship, 3, 5, 17 (November, 2019), http://justitia-int.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Analyse_The-Digital-Berlin-Wall-How-Germany-Accidentally-Created-a-Prototype-for-Global-Online-Censorship.pdf.

[9]See Press Release, Global Network Institute, (April 20, 2017), https://globalnetworkinitiative.org/proposed-german-legislation-threatens-free-expression-around-the-world/; See also Alana Schetzer, Governments are making fake news a crime but it could stifle free speech, The International Forum for Responsible Media Blog, (July 21, 2019), https://inforrm.org/2019/07/21/governments-are-making-fake-news-a-crime-but-it-could-stifle-free-speech-alana-schetzer/. (‘Schetzer’).

[10] See Kirsten Gollatz and Leontine Jenner, Hate Speech and Fake News – how two concepts got intertwined and politicized, Digital Society Blog (March 15, 2018), https://www.hiig.de/en/hate-speech-fake-news-two-concepts-got-intertwined-politicised/. (‘Gollatz and Jenner’).

[11] See Heidi Tworek and Paddy Leerssen, An Analysis of Germany’s NetzDG Law, Transatlantic High Level Working Group on Content Moderation Online and Freedom of Expression 2 (2019). (‘Tworek and Leerssen’).

[12] Id.

[13] Network Enforcement Act, 2017, Art. 1 § 1(2).

[14] Network Enforcement Act, 2017, Art. 1 § 3(1).

[15] Network Enforcement Act, 2017, Art. 1 § 3(2); Tworek and Leerssen, supra note 11.

[16] Network Enforcement Act, 2017, Art. 1 § 3(3); Tworek and Leerssen, supra note 11.

[17] Tworek and Leerssen, supra note 11.

[18] See Emma Thomasson, Germany looks to revise social media law as Europe watches, Reuters, (March 8, 2018), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-hatespeech/germany-looks-to-revise-social-media-law-as-europe-watches-idUSKCN1GK1BN. (‘Reuters’)

[19] See Germany: Flawed Social Media Law, Human Rights Watch, (February 14, 2018, 12:01 AM), https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/02/14/germany-flawed-social-media-law.

[20] See Schetzer, supra note 9; Germany starts enforcing hate speech law, BBC News (January 1, 2018), https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-42510868; Gollatz and Jenner, supra note 10.

[21] Tworek and Leerssen, supra note 11 at 3.

[22]See Germany: The Act to Improve Enforcement of the Law in Social Networks, Article 19, 2 (August, 2017) https://www.article19.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/170901-Legal-Analysis-German-NetzDG-Act.pdf.

[23] Tworek and Leerssen, supra note 11 at 3.

[24] Reuters supra note 19; Schetzer, supra note 9.

[25] See Nadine Strossen, Freedom of Speech and Equality: Do We Have to Choose?, 25(1) J Law Pol. 214 (2016).

[26] Grundgesetz, The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949, Art. 5.

[27] See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, Art. 19; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, Art. 2.

[28] See Chloé Berthélémy, French Avia law declared Unconstitutional: what does this teach us at EU level?, EDRi, (June 24, 2020), https://edri.org/french-avia-law-declared-unconstitutional-what-does-this-teach-us-at-eu-level/.

[29] See Mark McCarthy, In France What’s Illegal Offline Is Now Illegal Online, Forbes (May 18, 2020), https://www.forbes.com/sites/washingtonbytes/2020/05/18/in-france-whats-illegal-offline-is-now-illegal-online/#2609c3ce38b5.

[30] See Manny Marotta, France Constitutional Court strikes down most of online hate speech law, Jurist, (June 20, 2020, 4:47 PM) https://www.jurist.org/news/2020/06/french-court-strikes-down-most-of-online-hate-speech-law/.

[31] European Commission, Draft Act amending the Network Enforcement Act, 2020/174/D (Germany) (Notified on 30 March, 2020).

[32] See Rainer Hofmann, Incitement to National and Racial Hatred: The Legal Situation in Germany in Striking a Balance 160 (1992).

[33] See Sander van der Linden and Jon Roozenbeek, Bad News – A psychological vaccine against fake news, LSE Impact Blog (July 31, 2019), https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/07/31/bad-news-a-psychological-vaccine-against-fake-news/.

[34] Id.

[35] Id.

[36] See Sander van der Linden, Anthony Leiserowitz, Seth Rosenthal, and Edward Maibach, Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change, 1(2) Global Challenges 5, 6 (2017).

[37] See Jon Roozenbeek and Sander van der Linden, Fake news game confers psychological resistance against online misinformation, 5 Palgrave Commun. 2, 8 (2019).

[38] Id.

[39] Id.